is brought to you today by your cable or satellite provider. authorthe civil war," and lincoln forum founder frank williams talks about the politics and culture after president lincoln's assassination and the rep -- reconstruction era that followed. this talk was part of the lincoln forum symposium and is about 45 minutes. >> good morning. welcome to the lincoln symposium. our next guest needs no introduction. he is the founding chairman of the lincoln forum. he is also the president of the grant association, a former member of both the abraham lincoln bicentennial commission and the abraham bicentennial foundation and he did all of this while

serving the people of rhode island as their chief justice of the supreme court from 2001 until 2009. frank is the author, co-author, or editor of several books including "judging lincoln," "lincoln as hero," and most recently "the lincoln wasssination riddle," which published in 2016. favorite of his published works is the one that he co-authored with richard and me. [laughter] he has received the order of linking, the highest honor bestowed by the state of illinois. frank also married well. [laughter] edna: we are reminded -- [applause] na: we are reminded that great

men usually have extraordinary women at their side who are doing their own thing. and

johnson barely survived impeachment when grant's bargain was ended, a national cop out in personality and outlook, president andrew johnson was ill-suited for the responsibility he now shouldered following lincoln's assassination. a lonely, stubborn man, he was intolerant of criticism and unable to compromise. he lacked lincoln's political skills and keen sense of

northern public opinion. though johnson had supported him -- emancipation during the war, he held deeply racist views. a spokesman for poor white farmers of the south, he condemned the old planter aristocracy, but believed african-americans had no role to play and reconstruction. thus johnson proved incapable of providing the nation with enlightened leadership. with congress out of session in mayecember, johnson 1865, right after the assassination, outlined his land for reigniting the nation. he issued a series of proclamations and more amnesties than any resident in american history. the rather then magnanimous acts, johnson offered a pardon to all southern whites except

confederate leaders and wealthy plan fees and most of these subsequently received individual pardons who took an oath of allegiance. he also appointed provisional elected by whites alone. apart from the requirement that they abolish slavery, repudiate the confederacy, and abrogate the debt, the confederates were free in managing the run affairs. johnson had spoken of punishing aitors, and most white southerners believed his proposals were surprisingly lenient. criticized johnson's reconstruction for ignoring the rights of the former slaves, but at the outset, most northerners toved the policy -- believed be deserved it has to succeed.

conduct of the new southern government under johnson's most of however, turned the republican north against the president. johnson assumed when elections were held for governors, unionist human -- unionist theen would replace planters. in fact, by and large white southerners returned the old elite to power. republicans and black leaders like frick would do a -- wererick douglass -- outraged. but what aroused the most opposition were laws passed by the new southern governments, the black codes, which granted suchpeople limited rights as the right to own property and bring suit in court. african-americans could not

testify against right, nor could they serve on militias, nor could they vote. the black codes required blacks to sign yearly labor contracts and may be unemployed vagrants subject to arrest, fines, and being hired out to white landowners. some states limited occupations open to blacks and prevented them from acquiring land. oneblack codes, wrote oneblican, were attempts republican, were attempts to restore all of slavery but in name. reconstruction was over. this led it moderates to join radicals like thaddeus stevens in refusing to use seat --

two-seat the southerners recently elected to congress. then they established a joint committee to infinity -- to investigate the progress of reconstruction. over.esident said it was no more. early in 1860 six, lyman trumbull, a senator from illinois, proposed to build, reflecting the moderates' belief that johnson's policy required modification. the first extended the life of the freedmen's bureau, which had been established for only one year. the second, the civil rights bill, was described by one congressman as one of the most important bills ever presented to the house for its action. the bill left the new southern governments in place, but required them to accord blacks the same civil rights as whites. it made no mention of the right to vote. passed by overwhelming

majorities, the civil rights the firstsented attempt to define in legislative terms the essence of freedom and the rights of american citizenship. in empowering the federal equalityt to require regardless of race, it embodied a profound change in federal-state relations. to the surprise of congress, johnson vetoed both bills. johnson offered no possibility of compromising with congress. he insisted instead his own thenstruction program left unchanged. it made a conflict between the president and the congress inevitable. in april 1866, the civil rights bill became the first major law in american history passed over

presidential veto. i might want to add parenthetically this civil rights act of 1866 is still relevant today and still used by the department of justice to enforce civil liberties. congress approved the 14th to protect the rights of all americans. it forbade states from abridging the immunities of american citizens or depriving any citizen from equal protection under the laws. radicalsromise between and moderates, it did not give >> the right to vote, but threatened to reduce the -- it did not give blacks the right to vote, but threatened to reduce southern representation if black men were barred from voting. it prevented many confederate leaders from holding state and

national office and it empowered congress to take further steps to enforce amendment provisions. the most important change in the constitution since the adoption bill of rights, it established the fundamental right of american citizens. it shifted the balance of power within the nation i making the federal government, not the states, the ultimate protector of citizens rights, a sharp departure from prewar traditions , notsaw centralized power local authority, as the threat to american liberties. congressesing future to define the meaning of equal rights, it made equality before the law i dynamic, elastic rentable. and the amendment

policy of guaranteeing civil rights for blacks became the central issues of the political campaign of 1866. congress now demanded that in order that they regain seat in the house and senate, the southern states ratified the amendment. johnson denounced a proposal and embarked on a speaking tour of the north to swing around the circle, as it was called. critics, thes president made wild accusations plotting toe assassinate him. if further undermined public support for his policies, much as his drunken behavior had done at his inauguration as vice president. in elections that fall, republicans won a sweeping victory. nonetheless, egged on by johnson, every southern state but tennessee refused to ratify

the 14th amendment. of johnson andce the bulk of the white south further pushed moderate republicans toward the radicals. in march 1867, over john central veto, congress adopted the reconstruction act, which -- overthe south johnson's lido, congress adopted the reconstruction act, which divided the south, barred confederates from voting or holding office, and called for the southtions in with black men given the right to vote. only as governments ratify the 14th amendment did southern states finally be readmitted to the union. ofs began the period congressional or radical reconstruction, which lasted until the fall of the last southern republican government in 1877. it was the nation's first real

experiment in interracial mockers see. is policy --hield interracial tomography. in order to shield its policy, ofgress adopted the tenure office act, barring the president from her moving certain officeholders, including cabinet members, without the consent of the senate. in february 1868, johnson removed secretary of war, edwin stanton, an ally of the radicals. the house responded by approving articles of impeachment against the president. to me, one of abraham lincoln's worst decisions was to allow the removal of hannibal hamlin as vice presidential candidate in 1864. virtually all republicans by this point consider johnson a failure as president and an

obstacle to a lasting reconstruction. but some moderates disliked the prospect of elevating to the waive, ay benjamin radical, who as president pro tem of the senate would succeed johnson if johnson were in fact impeached. wade in some ways was a mayor or image of johnson in terms of personality. the final tally to convict johnson was one vote short of the two thirds necessary to remove him from office. seven republicans had joined the democrats in voting to acquit the president. weekend thequittal radicals -- weakened the radicals' position and made the tomination of ulysses s. gran

inevitable. appomattox in short grant's victory as president and would allow grant to be really considered a genuine hero of the american republic, even eclipsing lincoln until after grant's death. the nation's greatest war hero initially had supported johnson's policies. grant came to side with radicals worriedicals that he lacked strong ideological convictions. -- an issue of the 1868 campaign. the campaign was bitter. republicans identified your tacticts with treason, a known as waving the bloody shirt. democrats appealed openly to

racism, charging reconstruction would lead to interracial marriage and black supremacy throughout the nation. grant won the election, although by a margin many republicans found uncomfortably close. he received overwhelming support from let voters in the south, but seymour may well have carried a majority of the nation's white vote. nonetheless, the result was a vindication of a republican reconstruction program that inspired congress to adopt the era's third amendment. bad federal and state governments from -- bitterly opposed by the democratic party, it became part of the constitution in 1870.

aftere as 1868, even congress had in franchise black men in the south, only eight northern states had allowed a black men to vote. in march 1870 seven, the american anti-slavery society work, theyits thought, now complete. congressional reconstruction policy was now essentially complete. reconstruction lay in the south. among the former slaves, the passage of the construction act of 1877 that brought black suffrage to the south cause political organization. determined to exercise their new rights as citizens, thousands join the union league, an organization closely linked to the republican party and a vast majority of african-americans

registered to vote. all of the confederate states met the requirements of congress and had been readmitted to the union and were nearly all under control of the republican party. the new constitution drafted in 1868 and 1869 by the first public bodies in american history with substantial lacked representation of about 1000 -- the essential black representation of about 1000 delegates in the south, over one quarter were black. they made the structure of seven government more democratic, modernized to the tax system, and guaranteed the civil and political rights of black citizens. a few states initially had fromd former confederates voting, but this policy was quickly abandoned. black voters provided the bulk of the republican party's

support. though democrats charged that negro rule came to the south, nowhere did the blacks control the workings of state government and nowhere did they hold office equal to their proportion in the total population, which rained -- which ranged from 60% in south carolina to 30% in arkansas, north carolina, tennessee, and texas. nonetheless, the fact that well over 1500 african-americans occupied positions of political power in the reconstruction south represented a stunning departure. the new southern republican party also brought to power whites who enjoyed little authority before the civil war. given that many of the reconstruction governors and legislatures lactic government

experience, their record is still remarkable. the new government establish the south's first state-supported public-school systems as well as numerous hospitals and asylums for orphans and the insane. their institutions were open to blacks and whites, although generally they were segregated. only in new orleans were public schools integrated during reconstruction and only in south carolina did the state university admit black students. elsewhere separate colleges were established for blacks. by the 1870's in a region whose prewar leaders had made it to learn andlacks read and did little to promote the education of among poorer whites, over half the children were attending public schools. in assuming responsibility for

education, reconstruction governments followed a path blazed by the north. there guarantee to -- the guarantee lost these governments into an unknown area in american law. racial segregation or the complete exclusion of blacks from public facilities was widespread throughout the country. black demands for the outline of -- for the outlawing of segregation provided deep divisions within her public and party. but in the south where blacks made up the vast majority of the republican voting population, laws were enacted making it illegal for railroads, hotels, and other institutions to discriminate on the basis of race and enforcement of these laws are very considerably. but reconstruction established for the first time at the state

level as standard of equal citizenship and a recognition of blacks' rights to public services. republican governments also took ands to promote both races promote the south's economic recovery. the black codes were repealed, the property of small farmers protected against being seized for debt and they shifted the burden from propertyless blacks and who paid a disproportionate share during presidential reconstruction to planters and other landowners. the former slaves, however, were disappointed that little was done to assist them in acquiring land. only south carolina took effective action establishing a commission to resell land for families.

the reconstruction governments penned their hopes for southern economic growth and opportunity for african-americans on a program of regional development. railroad construction was its centerpiece, the key, they believed, to linking the south with northern markets and transforming into a society of --ming factors, towns, and factories, towns, and booming agriculture. they had mixed results. a few states -- georgia, alabama, arkansas, and texas -- witnessed significant railroad construction, but economic development in general remained weak. with abundant opportunities existing in the west, few northern investors ventured to the reconstruction south. thus to their supporters, the governments of radical aconstruction represented

complex pattern of achievement and disappointment. the economic vision of a modernizing, revitalize southern failed to materialize and most african-americans remained locked in property -- poverty. on the other hand, biracial democratic government, the thing unknown in american history, for the first time functioned effectively in many parts of the south. school systems were established and legal cords -- legal codes were purged of racism. the conservative oligarchy that dominated colonial government found itself largely excluded from political power while those who had previously been , poor white southerners, men from the north, ,nd former slaves, cast ballots

set on juries, and enacted and administer laws. the effect on african-americans was strikingly visible. leaders opposed the new southern governments, announcing them as corrupt, inefficient, embodying wartime to feet and -- to feet and black supremacy. the most basic reasons for opposition to reconstruction, however, was most white southerners could not accept the voting,former slaves of old and office, and enjoying equality before the law. they also regarded blacks as an inferior race whose proper place was as dependent laborers. reconstruction, they believed, had to be overthrown to restore

white supremacy and to ensure planters had a disciplined, reliable labor force. agreed that -- it was explicitly motivated by politics. in wide areas of the south, reconstruction's opponents resorted to terror to secure their aim of securing democratic capital d -- and white supremacy. the store the republican party by assassinating leaders. the most notorious organization with the ku klux klan, which in effect served as the military arm of the democratic party.

founded as a tennessee social was soon klan transformed into an organization of terrorist criminals that spread into nearly every southern states, led by planters, merchants, and democratic politicians, men who liked to sell themselves as the south's natural rulers -- the of the mosted some brutal acts of violence in american history. grant's election did not end klan violence. fact, in some areas it accelerated. what republicans, local officeholders, teachers, and party organized were often victimized. in 1870, an irish born teacher

in a black school was lynched in alabama along with four black men. female teachers were beaten as well as mail. male.well as although some northern republicans opposed further intervention in the south, most agreed with senator john sherman of ohio who armed that the power of the nation once -- must crush as we once before have done this organized civil war. in 1870 and 1871, congress adopted three enforcement act outlawing terrorist societies and allowing the president to use the army against them. these laws continue the expansion of national authority during the construction -- by definingon certain crimes, those aimed at depriving citizens of their rights.

in 1871, president grant authorized federal marshals backed up by troops in some areas, to arrest hundreds of en after a series of well-publicized trials in which many of the organization leaders were jailed, peace reigned in the former confederacy. at least for a while. despite the grant administration's effective terrorism, then north's commitment to reconstruction waned during the 1870's. had passedl leaders from the scene. within the republican party, their place was taken by politicians less committed to the ideal of equal rights for blacks. many northerners felt that the south should be able to solve its own problems without

constant interference from washington. the federal government had freed the slaves, made them citizens, given them the right to vote, and crushed the ku klux klan. now blacks should rely on their demandources, not further assistance from the north. other factors also weakened northern support for reconstruction. plunged the country into a severe economic depression. distracted by the nation's economic problem, republicans were in no mood to devote further attention to the south. congress did enact one final piece of civil rights legislation, the civil rights act of 1875, which outlawed racial discrimination in places of public accommodation. this was a tribute to charles devoted hishad career to principles of equality before the law but who died in

1874. nonetheless, it was clear that the northern public was retreating from reconstruction. one reason republicans adopted the civil rights act was that democrats, for the first time since before the civil war, swept the elections of 1874 and would control the house of representatives beginning in december 1875. tonwhile, the supreme court, my own personal chagrin, began whittling away at the guarantees of black rights that congress had adopted. henceforth, southern republicans , white and black, could expect little further help from washington. mid-1870's, reconstruction was on the defensive. those states where reconstruction survived, violence again reared its head. this time, the grant administration showed no desire

to intervene. in contrast to the clan's activities conducted at night by disguised men, the violence of 1875 and 1876 took place in broad daylight. 's if to flaunt democrats conviction that they had nothing to fear from washington. -61,n the winter of 1860 americans again faced a political and constitutional crisis as a result of the presidential election of 1876. in january 1877, unable to resolve the crisis on its own, congress appointed a 15-member electoral commission composed of senators, representatives, and supreme court justices. republicans enjoyed and 8-7 majority of the commission, and to no one's surprise, the

members decided that rutherford hayes had carried the disputed southern states and was elected. the bargain of 1877 recognized democratic control of the remaining southern states, and thez would not block certification of hayes' election by congress. he became president, ended federal intervention in the south, and ordered united states troops who had been guarding the statehouses in south carolina and louisiana to return to their barracks, not to leave the region entirely, as is widely believed. , as the southern democrats who overturned republican rule called themselves, now ruled the entire south. reconstruction had come to an end. perhaps abraham lincoln was naive about his hope to

reconstruct the south. he had thought the civil war and after short one that turned into a false hope, most of his time was spent on how to win a long one. the transition from a slave to a free society would take and .equire a social revolution the johnson administration seems to confirm the founders' wisdom of our character and the danger of demagogues. ulysses s. grant's administration confirms lincoln 's remark that americans are the almost chosen people. grant was running a race against time, not only in regard to white southerners who have been displaced from power, but also the flash flood of his cronies whom he had trusted. service --did human

yeom service to lincoln's dreaman's in suggesting an open society would become more likely in the long-term. thank you all very much. [applause] >> thank you for that. howtion -- do you know active or passive, if any, a role rutherford hayes took in that bargain? >> i think the question is what role active or otherwise rutherford hayes took in this , thept bargain, i call it

election of 1876 and its so-called resolution the following year. i don't think much. i think his political operatives really handled all of the machinations and shenanigans to get him the office. i think he had a deft hand like incoln's own chicanery politics. you would have third parties do your bidding, and i think that was the case here. >> the head of the history department at youngstown state always made the statement that john wilkes booth did lincoln a heor by killing him because could not have done much better with congressman johnson did. >> another "what if" question that is asked all the time, and it should be because as lovers of lincoln and respectful of his

statesmanship, i have to think that lincoln had so much more political skill than his successor that he would have done a lot better in ameliorating the conflict tween the executive branch and the legislative branch. while not a total success, because, remember, we are talking about a social revolution here. even if -- has lincoln served his second term in full, i think we would still in some form or another still be required to pass the civil rights legislation of the 1960's and also deal with our supreme court in a way that took -- even though it might not have taken 100 years, but certainly a number of years, long after lincoln's life, to get into the spirit of civil liberties and equality for all.

>> implicit in the tone of your remarks is that washington that there ball and should have been -- >> what else is new? i'm sorry for that sarcastic remark, but, please. and thengton, d.c., northern leadership should have in ruthless in their pursuit of justice in the south -- should have then -- should've been ruthless in their pursuit of justice and the south and girded themselves against the gnashing of teeth. am i reading that correctly? otherwise, we have what we had, which was 100 years of injustice and a country that never really healed for almost a century.

>> is an excellent question, and, yes, i am disappointed in of almost peaks and valleys the actions or inaction from washington, but i have to's this -- the people who are in washington in both the executive and legislative branches are elected by the people, and it's like the old pogo cartoon -- remember? we have that the enemy and they are us? i have to think now as well as mustwe are the ones who decide in the and what kind of leadership we want in washington. and also, the second point which i tried to make here is that normalare -- and this is -- people tire. they tire of war, and i don't

mean the war combat, but i mean the war against injustice. we tend to put it aside in a form of survival, and i have always thought since i was a young man that we needed a part of us to be committed to the basic principles of the declaration of independence, which we all know was more revered i lincoln than the constitution, that all men are created equal. yes? >> as an attorney, i must address you as your honor. >> chief will do. not raised a supreme court justice. i really appreciated your positive remarks about how things might have then different

had lincoln not assassinated, fairly responsible historian suggest that had lincoln not been assassinated, we would have no lincoln memorial. i would like your reflection. ? well, what can i say we have had memorials for other presidents who have not achieved, i think, the great is results thatand lincoln did. i think if he continued to be the statesman that he was during his first term that there would be a memorial. maybe not the lincoln memorial we know today which is so symbolic, i think, in part, because of his death, but i think we would remember him with respect and fondness.

yes? >> i was wondering if you are the recent book published by michelle alexander alled "the new jim crow." it is her contention in the book that we in fact have jim crow writes any, and she eloquent, very sobering look that i highly recommend to look at the issues of the jim crow today. >> i agree with you in many respects. i have not read the book, but i have certainly heard about it, and i think the racism that confronted lincoln and the radical republicans and andrew both presidential and congressional reconstruction, if you want to call it that, is still with us today. i think i have to say this as a

mediator -- we could not mediate the civil war because when that first boatload of slaves went into jamestown harbor in in 1619, i think it was, we were doomed. that was it. once we created an enslaved culture, the only way we could get out of it is exactly what and 1865,etween 1861 and what many great americans, men and women, have tried to do to defray us, to get us away from this injustice of enslaving another people. thank you all. you then great. -- you've been great. [laughter] -- [applause] >> you are watching american history tv all weekend every weekend on a stand me.

to join the conversation, like at c-spanbook history. >> historianistory tv, kenneth greenberg discusses historical portrayals of net , ther -- nat turner african-american leader of a slave rebellion in virginia. he describes the competing of turner's rebellion and looks at methods used by slaves to resist their masters. he also talks about the consequences of the rebellion or other slaves in the south. this event was part of the university of mary washington's great lives lecture series. tonight's comes to subject, greenberg is the editor -- two notebooks and was part of the team that wrote